BPF classifier and actions in tc(8)  Linux BPF classifier and actions in tc(8)



NAME
       BPF - BPF programmable classifier and actions for ingress/egress queue-
       ing disciplines

SYNOPSIS
   eBPF classifier (filter) or action:
       tc filter ... bpf [ object-file OBJ_FILE	 ]  [  section	CLS_NAME  ]  [
       export  UDS_FILE	 ]  [  verbose	]  [  police  POLICE_SPEC  ]  [ action
       ACTION_SPEC ] [ classid CLASSID ]
       tc action ... bpf [ object-file OBJ_FILE	 ]  [  section	CLS_NAME  ]  [
       export UDS_FILE ] [ verbose ]


   cBPF classifier (filter) or action:
       tc  filter ... bpf [ bytecode-file BPF_FILE | bytecode BPF_BYTECODE ] [
       police POLICE_SPEC ] [ action ACTION_SPEC ] [ classid CLASSID ]
       tc action ... bpf [ bytecode-file BPF_FILE | bytecode BPF_BYTECODE ]


DESCRIPTION
       Extended Berkeley Packet Filter ( eBPF ) and  classic  Berkeley	Packet
       Filter  (originally known as BPF, for better distinction referred to as
       cBPF here) are both available as a fully programmable and highly	 effi-
       cient classifier and actions. They both offer a minimal instruction set
       for implementing small programs which can safely	 be  loaded  into  the
       kernel  and  thus executed in a tiny virtual machine from kernel space.
       An in-kernel verifier guarantees that a specified program always termi-
       nates and neither crashes nor leaks data from the kernel.

       In Linux, it's generally considered that eBPF is the successor of cBPF.
       The kernel internally transforms cBPF expressions into eBPF expressions
       and  executes  the  latter.  Execution  of  them can be performed in an
       interpreter or  at  setup  time,	 they  can  be	just-in-time  compiled
       (JIT'ed)	 to  run  as native machine code. Currently, x86_64, ARM64 and
       s390 architectures have eBPF JIT support, whereas PPC, SPARC,  ARM  and
       MIPS have cBPF, but did not (yet) switch to eBPF JIT support.

       eBPF's  instruction  set	 has similar underlying principles as the cBPF
       instruction set, it however is modelled closer to the underlying archi-
       tecture to better mimic native instruction sets with the aim to achieve
       a better run-time performance. It is designed to be JIT'ed with	a  one
       to one mapping, which can also open up the possibility for compilers to
       generate optimized eBPF code through  an	 eBPF  backend	that  performs
       almost as fast as natively compiled code. Given that LLVM provides such
       an eBPF backend, eBPF programs can therefore easily be programmed in  a
       subset  of  the	C  language. Other than that, eBPF infrastructure also
       comes with a construct called "maps". eBPF maps	are  key/value	stores
       that  are  shared between multiple eBPF programs, but also between eBPF
       programs and user space applications.

       For the traffic control subsystem, classifier and actions that  can  be
       attached	 to  ingress and egress qdiscs can be written in eBPF or cBPF.
       The advantage over other classifier and actions is that eBPF/cBPF  pro-
       vides  the  generic  framework,	while users can implement their highly
       specialized use cases efficiently. This means that  the	classifier  or
       action  written	that  way  will not suffer from feature bloat, and can
       therefore execute its task highly efficient. It allows  for  non-linear
       classification  and  even  merging the action part into the classifica-
       tion. Combined with efficient eBPF map data structures, user space  can
       push  new  policies  like  classids into the kernel without reloading a
       classifier, or it can gather statistics that are pushed	into  one  map
       and use another one for dynamically load balancing traffic based on the
       determined load, just to provide a few examples.


PARAMETERS
   object-file
       points to an object file that has an  executable	 and  linkable	format
       (ELF) and contains eBPF opcodes and eBPF map definitions. The LLVM com-
       piler infrastructure with clang(1) as a C language  front  end  is  one
       project	that supports emitting eBPF object files that can be passed to
       the eBPF classifier (more details in the EXAMPLES section). This option
       is mandatory when an eBPF classifier or action is to be loaded.


   section
       is  the	name  of  the ELF section from the object file, where the eBPF
       classifier or action resides. By default the section name for the clas-
       sifier  is called "classifier", and for the action "action". Given that
       a single object file can contain multiple classifier and	 actions,  the
       corresponding  section  name  needs to be specified, if it differs from
       the defaults.


   export
       points to a Unix domain socket file. In case the eBPF object file  also
       contains	 a section named "maps" with eBPF map specifications, then the
       map file descriptors can be handed off via the Unix domain socket to an
       eBPF  "agent"  herding  all  descriptors after tc lifetime. This can be
       some third party application implementing the IPC counterpart  for  the
       import,	that uses them for calling into bpf(2) system call to read out
       or update eBPF map data from user space, for  example,  for  monitoring
       purposes or to push down new policies.


   verbose
       if set, it will dump the eBPF verifier output, even if loading the eBPF
       program was successful. By default, only on error, the verifier log  is
       being emitted to the user.


   police
       is  an  optional parameter for an eBPF/cBPF classifier that specifies a
       police in tc(1) which is attached to the classifier, for example, on an
       ingress qdisc.


   action
       is  an  optional parameter for an eBPF/cBPF classifier that specifies a
       subsequent action in tc(1) which is attached to a classifier.


   classid
   flowid
       provides	 the  default  traffic	control	 class	identifier  for	  this
       eBPF/cBPF  classifier.  The  default class identifier can also be over-
       written by the return code of the eBPF/cBPF program. A  default	return
       code  of	 -1 specifies the here provided default class identifier to be
       used. A return code of the eBPF/cBPF program of 0 implies that no match
       took  place,  and  a return code other than these two will override the
       default classid. This allows for efficient,  non-linear	classification
       with  only  a  single  eBPF/cBPF	 program as opposed to having multiple
       individual programs for various class identifiers which would  need  to
       reparse packet contents.


   bytecode
       is  being  used	for loading cBPF classifier and actions only. The cBPF
       bytecode is directly passed as a text string in the form of  's,c  t  f
       k,c  t  f  k,c  t  f  k,...' , where s denotes the number of subsequent
       4-tuples. One such 4-tuple consists of c t f k decimals, where c repre-
       sents  the cBPF opcode, t the jump true offset target, f the jump false
       offset target and k the immediate constant/literal. There  are  various
       tools  that generate code in this loadable format, for example, bpf_asm
       that ships with the Linux kernel source tree under tools/net/ ,	so  it
       is  certainly  not expected to hack this by hand. The bytecode or byte-
       code-file option is mandatory when a cBPF classifier or action is to be
       loaded.


   bytecode-file
       also  being  used to load a cBPF classifier or action. It's effectively
       the same as bytecode only that the cBPF bytecode is not passed directly
       via command line, but rather resides in a text file.


EXAMPLES
   eBPF TOOLING
       A  full blown example including eBPF agent code can be found inside the
       iproute2 source package under: examples/bpf/

       As prerequisites, the kernel needs to have the eBPF system call	namely
       bpf(2)  enabled	and  ships with cls_bpf and act_bpf kernel modules for
       the traffic control subsystem. To enable eBPF/eBPF JIT support, depend-
       ing which of the two the given architecture supports:

	   echo 1 > /proc/sys/net/core/bpf_jit_enable

       A given restricted C file can be compiled via LLVM as:

	   clang  -O2  -emit-llvm -c bpf.c -o - | llc -march=bpf -filetype=obj
	   -o bpf.o

       The compiler invocation might still simplify in	future,	 so  for  now,
       it's  quite  handy  to  alias this construct in one way or another, for
       example:

	   __bcc() {
		   clang -O2 -emit-llvm -c $1 -o - | \
		   llc -march=bpf -filetype=obj -o "`basename $1 .c`.o"
	   }

	   alias bcc=__bcc

       A minimal, stand-alone unit, which matches  on  all  traffic  with  the
       default classid (return code of -1) looks like:


	   #include <linux/bpf.h>

	   #ifndef __section
	   # define __section(x)  __attribute__((section(x), used))
	   #endif

	   __section("classifier") int cls_main(struct __sk_buff *skb)
	   {
		   return -1;
	   }

	   char __license[] __section("license") = "GPL";

       More examples can be found further below in subsection eBPF PROGRAMMING
       as focus here will be on tooling.

       There can be various other sections, for	 example,  also	 for  actions.
       Thus,  an  object  file	in  eBPF can contain multiple entrance points.
       Always a specific entrance point, however, must be specified when  con-
       figuring	 with  tc. A license must be part of the restricted C code and
       the license string syntax is the same as	 with  Linux  kernel  modules.
       The  kernel  reserves  its right that some eBPF helper functions can be
       restricted to GPL compatible licenses only, and thus may reject a  pro-
       gram from loading into the kernel when such a license mismatch occurs.

       The  resulting  object  file from the compilation can be inspected with
       the usual set of tools that also operate on normal  object  files,  for
       example objdump(1) for inspecting ELF section headers:


	   objdump -h bpf.o
	   [...]
	   3 classifier	   000007f8  0000000000000000  0000000000000000	 00000040  2**3
			   CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, RELOC, READONLY, CODE
	   4 action-mark   00000088  0000000000000000  0000000000000000	 00000838  2**3
			   CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, RELOC, READONLY, CODE
	   5 action-rand   00000098  0000000000000000  0000000000000000	 000008c0  2**3
			   CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, RELOC, READONLY, CODE
	   6 maps	   00000030  0000000000000000  0000000000000000	 00000958  2**2
			   CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA
	   7 license	   00000004  0000000000000000  0000000000000000	 00000988  2**0
			   CONTENTS, ALLOC, LOAD, DATA
	   [...]

       Adding  an  eBPF classifier from an object file that contains a classi-
       fier in the default ELF	section	 is  trivial  (note  that  instead  of
       "object-file" also shortcuts such as "obj" can be used):

	   bcc bpf.c
	   tc filter add dev em1 parent 1: bpf obj bpf.o flowid 1:1

       In  case	 the classifier resides in ELF section "mycls", then that same
       command needs to be invoked as:

	   tc filter add dev em1 parent 1: bpf obj bpf.o sec mycls flowid 1:1

       Dumping the classifier configuration will  tell	the  location  of  the
       classifier,  in	other  words  that it's from object file "bpf.o" under
       section "mycls":

	   tc filter show dev em1
	   filter parent 1: protocol all pref 49152 bpf
	   filter parent 1: protocol all pref 49152 bpf handle 0x1 flowid  1:1
	   bpf.o:[mycls]

       The same program can also be installed on ingress qdisc side as opposed
       to egress ...

	   tc qdisc add dev em1 handle ffff: ingress
	   tc filter add dev em1 parent ffff: bpf obj bpf.o sec	 mycls	flowid
	   ffff:1

       ... and again dumped from there:

	   tc filter show dev em1 parent ffff:
	   filter protocol all pref 49152 bpf
	   filter  protocol  all  pref	49152  bpf  handle  0x1	 flowid ffff:1
	   bpf.o:[mycls]

       Attaching a classifier and action on ingress has the  restriction  that
       it  doesn't have an actual underlying queueing discipline. What ingress
       can do is to classify, mangle, redirect or drop packets. When  queueing
       is  required on ingress side, then ingress must redirect packets to the
       ifb device, otherwise policing can be used. Moreover,  ingress  can  be
       used  to	 have  an early drop point of unwanted packets before they hit
       upper layers of the networking stack, perform network  accounting  with
       eBPF  maps  that	 could	be shared with egress, or have an early mangle
       and/or redirection point to different networking devices.

       Multiple eBPF actions and classifier can be placed into a single object
       file  within  various sections. In that case, non-default section names
       must be provided, which is the case for both actions in this example:

	   tc filter add dev em1 parent 1: bpf obj bpf.o flowid 1:1 \
				    action bpf obj bpf.o sec action-mark \
				    action bpf obj bpf.o sec action-rand ok

       The advantage of this is that the classifier and the  two  actions  can
       then share eBPF maps with each other, if implemented in the programs.

       In  order  to access eBPF maps from user space beyond tc(8) setup life-
       time, the ownership can be transferred to an eBPF agent via Unix domain
       sockets. There are two possibilities for implementing this:

       1)  implementation  of  an own eBPF agent that takes care of setting up
       the Unix domain socket and implementing the protocol  that  tc(8)  dic-
       tates.  A  code example of this can be found inside the iproute2 source
       package under: examples/bpf/

       2) use tc exec for transferring the eBPF map file descriptors through a
       Unix  domain  socket,  and spawning an application such as sh(1) . This
       approach's advantage is that tc will place the  file  descriptors  into
       the  environment	 and thus make them available just like stdin, stdout,
       stderr file descriptors, meaning, in case user  applications  run  from
       within this fd-owner shell, they can terminate and restart without los-
       ing eBPF maps file descriptors. Example invocation  with	 the  previous
       classifier and action mixture:

	   tc exec bpf imp /tmp/bpf
	   tc  filter  add dev em1 parent 1: bpf obj bpf.o exp /tmp/bpf flowid
	   1:1 \
				    action bpf obj bpf.o sec action-mark \
				    action bpf obj bpf.o sec action-rand ok

       Assuming that eBPF maps are shared with classifier  and	actions,  it's
       enough  to export them once, for example, from within the classifier or
       action command. tc will setup all eBPF map file descriptors at the time
       when the object file is first parsed.

       When  a	shell  has been spawned, the environment will have a couple of
       eBPF related variables. BPF_NUM_MAPS provides the total number of  maps
       that  have  been	 transferred over the Unix domain socket. BPF_MAP<X>'s
       value is the file descriptor number that can be accessed in eBPF	 agent
       applications,  in  other	 words,	 it  can  directly be used as the file
       descriptor value for the bpf(2) system call to retrieve or  alter  eBPF
       map  values. <X> denotes the identifier of the eBPF map. It corresponds
       to the id member of struct bpf_elf_map  from the tc eBPF map specifica-
       tion.

       The environment in this example looks as follows:


	   sh# env | grep BPF
	       BPF_NUM_MAPS=3
	       BPF_MAP1=6
	       BPF_MAP0=5
	       BPF_MAP2=7
	   sh# ls -la /proc/self/fd
	       [...]
	       lrwx------. 1 root root 64 Apr 14 16:46 5 -> anon_inode:bpf-map
	       lrwx------. 1 root root 64 Apr 14 16:46 6 -> anon_inode:bpf-map
	       lrwx------. 1 root root 64 Apr 14 16:46 7 -> anon_inode:bpf-map
	   sh# my_bpf_agent

       eBPF agents are very useful in that they can prepopulate eBPF maps from
       user space, monitor statistics via maps and based on that feedback, for
       example, rewrite classids in eBPF map values during runtime. Given that
       eBPF agents are implemented  as	normal	applications,  they  can  also
       dynamically  receive traffic control policies from external controllers
       and thus push them down into eBPF maps to dynamically adapt to  network
       conditions. Moreover, eBPF maps can also be shared with other eBPF pro-
       gram types (e.g. tracing), thus very powerful combination can therefore
       be implemented.


   eBPF PROGRAMMING
       eBPF  classifier and actions are being implemented in restricted C syn-
       tax (in future, there could additionally be new language frontends sup-
       ported).

       The  header file linux/bpf.h provides eBPF helper functions that can be
       called from an eBPF program.  This man page will only provide two mini-
       mal,  stand-alone  examples,  have  a  look  at	examples/bpf  from the
       iproute2 source package for a fully fledged flow dissector  example  to
       better demonstrate some of the possibilities with eBPF.

       Supported  32  bit classifier return codes from the C program and their
       meanings:
	   0 , denotes a mismatch
	   -1 , denotes the default classid configured from the command line
	   else , everything else will override the default classid to provide
	   a facility for non-linear matching

       Supported 32 bit action return codes from the C program and their mean-
       ings ( linux/pkt_cls.h ):
	   TC_ACT_OK (0) , will terminate the packet processing	 pipeline  and
	   allows the packet to proceed
	   TC_ACT_SHOT (2) , will terminate the packet processing pipeline and
	   drops the packet
	   TC_ACT_UNSPEC (-1) , will use the default action configured from tc
	   (similarly as returning -1 from a classifier)
	   TC_ACT_PIPE (3) , will iterate to the next action, if available
	   TC_ACT_RECLASSIFY  (1) , will terminate the packet processing pipe-
	   line and start classification from the beginning
	   else , everything else is an unspecified return code

       Both classifier and action return codes are supported in eBPF and  cBPF
       programs.

       To demonstrate restricted C syntax, a minimal toy classifier example is
       provided, which assumes that egress packets, for	 instance  originating
       from a container, have previously been marked in interval [0, 255]. The
       program keeps statistics on different marks for user space and maps the
       classid to the root qdisc with the marking itself as the minor handle:


	   #include <stdint.h>
	   #include <asm/types.h>

	   #include <linux/bpf.h>
	   #include <linux/pkt_sched.h>

	   #include "helpers.h"

	   struct tuple {
		   long packets;
		   long bytes;
	   };

	   #define BPF_MAP_ID_STATS	   1 /* agent's map identifier */
	   #define BPF_MAX_MARK		   256

	   struct bpf_elf_map __section("maps") map_stats = {
		   .type	   =	   BPF_MAP_TYPE_ARRAY,
		   .id		   =	   BPF_MAP_ID_STATS,
		   .size_key	   =	   sizeof(uint32_t),
		   .size_value	   =	   sizeof(struct tuple),
		   .max_elem	   =	   BPF_MAX_MARK,
	   };

	   static inline void cls_update_stats(const struct __sk_buff *skb,
					       uint32_t mark)
	   {
		   struct tuple *tu;

		   tu = bpf_map_lookup_elem(&map_stats, &mark);
		   if (likely(tu)) {
			   __sync_fetch_and_add(&tu->packets, 1);
			   __sync_fetch_and_add(&tu->bytes, skb->len);
		   }
	   }

	   __section("cls") int cls_main(struct __sk_buff *skb)
	   {
		   uint32_t mark = skb->mark;

		   if (unlikely(mark >= BPF_MAX_MARK))
			   return 0;

		   cls_update_stats(skb, mark);

		   return TC_H_MAKE(TC_H_ROOT, mark);
	   }

	   char __license[] __section("license") = "GPL";

       Another	small  example	is a port redirector which demuxes destination
       port 80 into the interval [8080, 8087] steered by RSS, that can then be
       attached	 to  ingress qdisc. The exercise of adding the egress counter-
       part and IPv6 support is left to the reader:


	   #include <asm/types.h>
	   #include <asm/byteorder.h>

	   #include <linux/bpf.h>
	   #include <linux/filter.h>
	   #include <linux/in.h>
	   #include <linux/if_ether.h>
	   #include <linux/ip.h>
	   #include <linux/tcp.h>

	   #include "helpers.h"

	   static inline void set_tcp_dport(struct __sk_buff *skb, int nh_off,
					    __u16 old_port, __u16 new_port)
	   {
		   bpf_l4_csum_replace(skb, nh_off + offsetof(struct tcphdr, check),
				       old_port, new_port, sizeof(new_port));
		   bpf_skb_store_bytes(skb, nh_off + offsetof(struct tcphdr, dest),
				       &new_port, sizeof(new_port), 0);
	   }

	   static inline int lb_do_ipv4(struct __sk_buff *skb, int nh_off)
	   {
		   __u16 dport, dport_new = 8080, off;
		   __u8 ip_proto, ip_vl;

		   ip_proto = load_byte(skb, nh_off +
					offsetof(struct iphdr, protocol));
		   if (ip_proto != IPPROTO_TCP)
			   return 0;

		   ip_vl = load_byte(skb, nh_off);
		   if (likely(ip_vl == 0x45))
			   nh_off += sizeof(struct iphdr);
		   else
			   nh_off += (ip_vl & 0xF) << 2;

		   dport = load_half(skb, nh_off + offsetof(struct tcphdr, dest));
		   if (dport != 80)
			   return 0;

		   off = skb->queue_mapping & 7;
		   set_tcp_dport(skb, nh_off - BPF_LL_OFF, __constant_htons(80),
				 __cpu_to_be16(dport_new + off));
		   return -1;
	   }

	   __section("lb") int lb_main(struct __sk_buff *skb)
	   {
		   int ret = 0, nh_off = BPF_LL_OFF + ETH_HLEN;

		   if (likely(skb->protocol == __constant_htons(ETH_P_IP)))
			   ret = lb_do_ipv4(skb, nh_off);

		   return ret;
	   }

	   char __license[] __section("license") = "GPL";

       The related helper header file helpers.h in both examples was:


	   /* Misc helper macros. */
	   #define __section(x) __attribute__((section(x), used))
	   #define offsetof(x, y) __builtin_offsetof(x, y)
	   #define likely(x) __builtin_expect(!!(x), 1)
	   #define unlikely(x) __builtin_expect(!!(x), 0)

	   /* Used map structure */
	   struct bpf_elf_map {
	       __u32 type;
	       __u32 size_key;
	       __u32 size_value;
	       __u32 max_elem;
	       __u32 id;
	   };

	   /* Some used BPF function calls. */
	   static int (*bpf_skb_store_bytes)(void *ctx, int off, void *from,
					     int len, int flags) =
		 (void *) BPF_FUNC_skb_store_bytes;
	   static int (*bpf_l4_csum_replace)(void *ctx, int off, int from,
					     int to, int flags) =
		 (void *) BPF_FUNC_l4_csum_replace;
	   static void *(*bpf_map_lookup_elem)(void *map, void *key) =
		 (void *) BPF_FUNC_map_lookup_elem;

	   /* Some used BPF intrinsics. */
	   unsigned long long load_byte(void *skb, unsigned long long off)
	       asm ("llvm.bpf.load.byte");
	   unsigned long long load_half(void *skb, unsigned long long off)
	       asm ("llvm.bpf.load.half");

       Best practice, we recommend to  only  have  a  single  eBPF  classifier
       loaded in tc and perform all necessary matching and mangling from there
       instead of a list of individual classifier and separate actions. Just a
       single  classifier tailored for a given use-case will be most efficient
       to run.


   eBPF DEBUGGING
       Both tc filter and action commands for bpf support an optional  verbose
       parameter  that	can  be	 used  to inspect the eBPF verifier log. It is
       dumped by default in case of an error.

       In case the eBPF/cBPF JIT compiler has been enabled,  it	 can  also  be
       instructed  to  emit  a debug output of the resulting opcode image into
       the kernel log, which can be read via dmesg(1) :

	   echo 2 > /proc/sys/net/core/bpf_jit_enable

       The Linux kernel source tree  ships  additionally  under	 tools/net/  a
       small helper called bpf_jit_disasm that reads out the opcode image dump
       from the kernel log and dumps the resulting disassembly:

	   bpf_jit_disasm -o

       Other than that, the Linux kernel also contains an extensive  eBPF/cBPF
       test suite module called test_bpf . Upon ...

	   modprobe test_bpf

       ...  it	performs  a diversity of test cases and dumps the results into
       the kernel log that can be inspected with dmesg(1) .  The  results  can
       differ depending on whether the JIT compiler is enabled or not. In case
       of failed test cases, the module will fail to load. In such  cases,  we
       urge  you to file a bug report to the related JIT authors, Linux kernel
       and networking mailing lists.


   cBPF
       Although we generally recommend switching to implementing eBPF  classi-
       fier  and  actions, for the sake of completeness, a few words on how to
       program in cBPF will be lost here.

       Likewise,  the  bpf_jit_enable  switch  can  be	enabled	 as  mentioned
       already.	 Tooling  such	as  bpf_jit_disasm is also independent whether
       eBPF or cBPF code is being loaded.

       Unlike in eBPF, classifier and action are not implemented in restricted
       C,  but rather in a minimal assembler-like language or with the help of
       other tooling.

       The raw interface with tc takes opcodes directly. For example, the most
       minimal	classifier  matching  on every packet resulting in the default
       classid of 1:1 looks like:

	   tc filter add dev em1 parent 1: bpf bytecode '1,6 0 0  4294967295,'
	   flowid 1:1

       The first decimal of the bytecode sequence denotes the number of subse-
       quent 4-tuples of cBPF opcodes. As mentioned, such a  4-tuple  consists
       of  c  t	 f  k decimals, where c represents the cBPF opcode, t the jump
       true offset target, f the jump false offset target and k the  immediate
       constant/literal.  Here,	 this denotes an unconditional return from the
       program with immediate value of -1.

       Thus, for egress classification, Willem de Bruijn implemented a minimal
       stand-alone  helper tool under the GNU General Public License version 2
       for iptables(8) BPF extension, which abuses the libpcap internal	 clas-
       sic BPF compiler, his code derived here for usage with tc(8) :


	   #include <pcap.h>
	   #include <stdio.h>

	   int main(int argc, char **argv)
	   {
		   struct bpf_program prog;
		   struct bpf_insn *ins;
		   int i, ret, dlt = DLT_RAW;

		   if (argc < 2 || argc > 3)
			   return 1;
		   if (argc == 3) {
			   dlt = pcap_datalink_name_to_val(argv[1]);
			   if (dlt == -1)
				   return 1;
		   }

		   ret = pcap_compile_nopcap(-1, dlt, &prog, argv[argc - 1],
					     1, PCAP_NETMASK_UNKNOWN);
		   if (ret)
			   return 1;

		   printf("%d,", prog.bf_len);
		   ins = prog.bf_insns;

		   for (i = 0; i < prog.bf_len - 1; ++ins, ++i)
			   printf("%u %u %u %u,", ins->code,
				  ins->jt, ins->jf, ins->k);
		   printf("%u %u %u %u",
			  ins->code, ins->jt, ins->jf, ins->k);

		   pcap_freecode(&prog);
		   return 0;
	   }

       Given this small helper, any tcpdump(8) filter expression can be abused
       as a classifier where a match will result in the default classid:

	   bpftool EN10MB 'tcp[tcpflags] & tcp-syn != 0' > /var/bpf/tcp-syn
	   tc filter add dev em1 parent 1: bpf bytecode-file  /var/bpf/tcp-syn
	   flowid 1:1

       Basically, such a minimal generator is equivalent to:

	   tcpdump  -iem1  -ddd 'tcp[tcpflags] & tcp-syn != 0' | tr '\n' ',' >
	   /var/bpf/tcp-syn

       Since libpcap does not support all Linux' specific cBPF	extensions  in
       its  compiler,  the  Linux kernel also ships under tools/net/ a minimal
       BPF assembler called bpf_asm for providing full control.	 For  detailed
       syntax  and semantics on implementing such programs by hand, see refer-
       ences under FURTHER READING .

       Trivial toy example in bpf_asm for classifying IPv4/TCP packets,	 saved
       in a text file called foobar :


	   ldh [12]
	   jne #0x800, drop
	   ldb [23]
	   jneq #6, drop
	   ret #-1
	   drop: ret #0

       Similarly, such a classifier can be loaded as:

	   bpf_asm foobar > /var/bpf/tcp-syn
	   tc  filter add dev em1 parent 1: bpf bytecode-file /var/bpf/tcp-syn
	   flowid 1:1

       For BPF classifiers,  the  Linux	 kernel	 provides  additionally	 under
       tools/net/  a  small BPF debugger called bpf_dbg , which can be used to
       test a classifier against pcap files, single-step or add various break-
       points  into  the  classifier program and dump register contents during
       runtime.

       Implementing an action in classic BPF is rather limited	in  the	 sense
       that packet mangling is not supported. Therefore, it's generally recom-
       mended to make the switch to eBPF, whenever possible.


FURTHER READING
       Further and more technical details about the BPF	 architecture  can  be
       found  in  the  Linux  kernel  source tree under Documentation/network-
       ing/filter.txt .

       Further details on eBPF tc(8) examples can be  found  in	 the  iproute2
       source tree under examples/bpf/ .


SEE ALSO
       tc(8), tc-ematch(8) bpf(2) bpf(4)


AUTHORS
       Manpage written by Daniel Borkmann.

       Please  report corrections or improvements to the Linux kernel network-
       ing mailing list: <netdev@vger.kernel.org>



iproute2			  18 May 20BPF classifier and actions in tc(8)